2011年2月26日 星期六
10 Best Hiking Trails in the World
Tongariro Northern Circuit, North Island, New Zealand
Hiking through moonscapes on the Tongariro Circuit
It is certainly no secret that New Zealand boasts some of the world’s most beautiful and dramatic scenery, which is why it’s not surprising that one of the world’s most spectacular hikes is located on these mountainous islands. While many people who hike in the Tongariro Reserve (a World Heritage site) on the Northern island stick to the one-day Tongariro Alpine crossing, the multi-day (2 nights and 3 days) Tongariro northern circuit provides hikers with a much richer and scenic experience.
Hikers on the Tongariro Northern Circuit hike for about 35 kilometers through non-stop compelling volcanic and desert environs that will make you feel like you are trekking on the surface of another planet—all while giving you high mountain peaks as a backdrop, diversely striking vistas wide variety of different scenery. Hikers who set out on this out-of-this-world hike (quite literally) will circumambulate the active volcano Mt. Ngaurube (Mt. Doom for those Lord of the Rings fans out there) while hiking past boiling mud pools, craters, interesting lava features, the amazing water filled volcanic vents, glacial valleys and water-filled explosion craters called the Emerald Lakes. Things stay nice after dark, as you get to stay in comfortable alpine huts along the way that have decent beds, gas heating and stoves, running water and toilets. Hikers on this trek can also easily do two short side trips to the tops of both Mount Tongariro and Mount Ngauruhoe—allowing hikers to gaze out at the captivating volcanic scenery below.
Zion Narrows, Utah, United States
Exploring magnificent slot canyons in Zion
While hiking through the volcanic landscape of the Tongariro northern circuit may provide enthusiasts with an extraterrestrial experience, hikers are sure to be amazed at the unique and stunning scenery of trekking through the Zion narrows in the American southwest. Recently ranked as #5 on National Geographic’s list of America’s Best 100 Adventures, this trail will have you hiking up streams through dramatic, narrow slot canyons.
Hikers will wind their way through colorful, sculpted sandstone walls that rise up to 3,500 feet (that’s just about 1 km). The trek will also lead hikers through the famous “Wall Street,” a 2-mile section of the journey that crosses through a narrow canyon where the walls close to just 22 feet wide at the top. Hiking through water for about 60% of the hike up the streams that wind their way through these breathtaking slot canyons, you will see hanging gardens bursting from the red canyon walls, trickling water threading through cracks in the canyon walls and sprouting patches of moss, waterfalls sliding over the sandstone, and sandy banks with towering ponderosas. However, while this wondrous journey is sure to enchant hikers, it should be noted that hiking through the Zion Narrows is extremely dangerous, as flash floods can come quickly and the entire area is a huge drainage. Rainstorms up to 50 miles away can storm down the canyon and every year hikers die on this trail. Make sure to check the weather report in advance to make sure there is NO RAIN whatsoever in the forecast. However, with proper precautions, this hike, which is rated as one of the best hikes in the entire U.S. National Park system, is truly unparalleled.
Annapurna Circuit, Nepal
Hiking through dramatic mountainscapes on the roof of the world
Any serious hiker or trekker dreams of going to Nepal to journey through the world’s most dramatic mountain landscape. While most hikers think of Kathmandu and Everest when they hear the word Nepal, the Annapurna circuit (which circumnavigates the Annapurna massif) not only has staggering snow-capped and rugged peaks providing for a spectacular backdrop, but the hike also offers trekkers great opportunities to see a wide range of natural and cultural diversity.
This 3-week trek allows you to stay in comfortable lodges as you hike from lush sub-tropical landscapes into the highest mountains in the world (beware of altitude sickness as the trek goes to a elevation of 17,749 feet). As you hike the Annapurna Circuit, you will get to interact with the Tibetan mountain peoples, see Buddhist temples, visit teahouses, soak in hot springs and take in some of the most awe-inspiring scenery in the entire world.
Inca Trail, Peru
Discovering ancient civilizations and incredible scenery
Most people who know something about travel, know about the famous and world-renowned Inca Trail. While some of the more hard-core types out there may think of this amazing trek as cliché, the truth is that this trail is popular for a reason. Peru offers some of the most beautiful South American mountainous scenery and, while some criticize the trail for being over-regulated and too popular, Machu Picchu is a destination worth seeing and the hike along the way is sure not to disappoint, with plenty of scenic vistas and amazing views.
Along with offering spectacular scenery, the Inca Trail is not only safe and easy to organize, it also allows trekkers to hike through jungle to high alpine terrain, visit 3 sets of Inca ruins along the way, and take in the beauty of the Peruvian mountains over the 3-night, 4-day hike. Plus, at the end of the journey, hikers will arrive at one of the most celebrated man-made destinations on Earth.
Tiger Leaping Gorge, China
Mystery and lush beauty in China's Tiger Leaping Gorge
This 15-km gorge located along the Yangtzee River between approximately 6,000-meter Jade Dragon Snow Mountain and the 5,300-meter Haba Xueshan mountain, in China where rapids pass under a series of dramatic 2,000-meter cliffs. The gorge got its name from a legend that says a tiger once jumped the narrowest point of the gorge to escape a hunter (which is still 25 meters). As one of the world’s deepest river canyons, Tiger Leaping Gorge is a beautiful and scenic hike for those adventurous trekkers.
The high-road trail is well-maintained and marked and takes hikers on a 14-mile journey with varied mountain views that features a surprising variety of micro-ecosystems, waterfalls and even guesthouses where hikers can stay along the route.
While this gorgeous gorge is a essential and protected part of the World Heritage site of the Three parallel Rivers of Yunnan, the Chinese government has proposed building another hydroelectric dam that would flood this place—meaning hikers interested in seeing this beautiful, lush canyon should probably head there sooner rather than later.
Mount Kiliminjaro, Tanzania
Walking to the top of one of the seven summits
If summiting the tallest point on any continent has always had major appeal, but you are not sure you’re up for a technical, dangerous and rigorous climb, then hiking to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro is a great option. Kilimanjaro is often called the world’s tallest walkable mountain, because while it stands at nearly 20,000 feet, no technical climbing skills or equipment are needed (mind you, this does not mean it is an easy hike—the journey is still physically demanding and people die every year from altitude sickness on this mountain).
There are several routes to the top of the tallest free-standing mountain in the world and the highest point in Africa is not only of the seven summits (the tallest points on each of the seven continents), but it’s also one of the most diverse and varied hikes in the world. Hikers start near the equator and hike through every climatic zone on the 6-day, 5-night trek that leads you from hot grasslands through temperate forests to glacial valleys and a frigid summit.
Kalalau Trail, Kauai, Hawaii
Green cliffs and blue ocean on Kauai's Kalalau trail
Kauai’s Na Pali coastline, which translates as “the cliffs” and which distinguishes the most impressive feature of this stretch of coastline boasts some of the most dramatically beautiful scenery in the world. Sheer cliffs dropping into the blue Pacific waters below, lush tropical valleys with picture-perfect waterfalls, green, velvet coated mountains and waves crashing dramatically into the rocky cliffs mark this hike into the remote and protected areas of coastline, where you can also spot pods of dolphins, humpback whales and sea turtles off the coast.
The 11-mile trail etches into the cliffs that raise as much as 4,000 feet above the ocean below and crosses 5 major valleys and countless smaller ones. The sometimes-treacherous trail takes most experienced and fit hikers one day and many hikers two, who camp in a permitted spot along the way. The trail was first built in the late 1800s, with portions rebuilt in the 1930s. It is almost never level, and in some spots the trail is quite narrow along cliffs dropping hundreds or thousands of feet to the ocean below.
Torres del Paine Circuit, Chile
Hike past glaciers and dramatic cliffs on Torres del Paine in Patagonia
Those looking for dramatic alpine landscapes, glacial fields, astonishing, jagged mountainscapes and a chance to get a look at the stunning spires of pink granite that make the famous towers of Paine should hike the Torres del Paine Circuit in Chile’s Patagonia mountains. Named one of the 50 places to visit in your lifetime by National Geographic, as well as being named a UNESCO biosphere reserve, this 100-km circuit offers surreal mountain vistas, glacial lakes, unique wildlife. You might even see a glacier calving. The wondrous track takes you through Magellenic forest, muddy bog, rocky gullies and over makeshift bridges.
Hikers should be weary that while this region is totally gorgeous, it is also notorious for inclement and often quite horrendous weather—meaning that not only will your pack be heavy laden with all of the appropriate gear to keep you warm and dry in the event of a storm, but it is also possible to get stuck in a bad storm or run into closed portions of the trail. But, the bad weather keeps this trek from getting overly crowded and you’ll feel all the more rough’n’tumble and accomplished for having braved harsh conditions (and those towering spires of the Paine will probably look all the more beautiful).
Tour de Mont Blanc, France
Hike around Europe's highest peak (and drink wine at night)
Regularly making lists as one of the best hikes in the world, this route circumambulates Mont Blanc, Europe’s highest peak standing at just over 15,000 feet. The 170-km hike offers stunning views of Mount Blanc and other Alp peaks, beautiful green valleys, blue alpine lakes and huge glaciers. The well-marked and maintained trails also lead hikers past wild chamois and ibexes, allow them to climb iron ladders bolted to the mountains and enjoy the alpine charm of the French Alps.
The other great part of this hike? While you may not feel quite as tough staying in the comfortable and warm refuges (hiking huts) along the way, not having to carry food or a tent makes for much lighter loads. Also, while opting to take the cable cars and chair lifts along the way could be considered cheating, it’s a great way to shorten your hike on certain days and be able to take in all the beautiful scenery without having to be too hardcore. Plus, the refuges offer comfort along the route—serving up hearty and delicious French food and wine and allowing hikers the chance to stalk up on food and supplies.
West Coast Trail, British Columbia, Canada
Temperate rain forests, mountains and beach on Canada's West Coast Trail
If you are looking for a surreal experience hiking through pristine Canadian wilderness, catching beautiful vistas of both temperate rain forests, rugged coastlines and dramatic mountain peaks, then the West Coast Trail is an absolute must. Hikers will awake to misty dawns, enjoy unbelievable sunsets, cross boulders and logs over rivers, scramble up creeks, hike past waterfalls, be dwarfed by enormous trees in an old growth forest, spot whales, sea lions, minks and maybe even bears or wolves, and check out shipwrecks and other historical sites.
This unique, stunning hike with immensely varied terrain can be difficult to get one of the limited permits available every summer and costing about C$200 per person it is also the most expensive hike in Canada. Also, inclement weather even in the summer months can make for heavy packs for climbing over mossy rocks and all of those ladders. That being said, this hike is well worth both the money and the heavy pack, as no other hike in North America offers such varied scenery from forest to mountains to sea.
Tongariro Northern Circuit, North Island, New Zealand
Hiking through moonscapes on the Tongariro Circuit
It is certainly no secret that New Zealand boasts some of the world’s most beautiful and dramatic scenery, which is why it’s not surprising that one of the world’s most spectacular hikes is located on these mountainous islands. While many people who hike in the Tongariro Reserve (a World Heritage site) on the Northern island stick to the one-day Tongariro Alpine crossing, the multi-day (2 nights and 3 days) Tongariro northern circuit provides hikers with a much richer and scenic experience.
Hikers on the Tongariro Northern Circuit hike for about 35 kilometers through non-stop compelling volcanic and desert environs that will make you feel like you are trekking on the surface of another planet—all while giving you high mountain peaks as a backdrop, diversely striking vistas wide variety of different scenery. Hikers who set out on this out-of-this-world hike (quite literally) will circumambulate the active volcano Mt. Ngaurube (Mt. Doom for those Lord of the Rings fans out there) while hiking past boiling mud pools, craters, interesting lava features, the amazing water filled volcanic vents, glacial valleys and water-filled explosion craters called the Emerald Lakes. Things stay nice after dark, as you get to stay in comfortable alpine huts along the way that have decent beds, gas heating and stoves, running water and toilets. Hikers on this trek can also easily do two short side trips to the tops of both Mount Tongariro and Mount Ngauruhoe—allowing hikers to gaze out at the captivating volcanic scenery below.
Zion Narrows, Utah, United States
Exploring magnificent slot canyons in Zion
While hiking through the volcanic landscape of the Tongariro northern circuit may provide enthusiasts with an extraterrestrial experience, hikers are sure to be amazed at the unique and stunning scenery of trekking through the Zion narrows in the American southwest. Recently ranked as #5 on National Geographic’s list of America’s Best 100 Adventures, this trail will have you hiking up streams through dramatic, narrow slot canyons.
Hikers will wind their way through colorful, sculpted sandstone walls that rise up to 3,500 feet (that’s just about 1 km). The trek will also lead hikers through the famous “Wall Street,” a 2-mile section of the journey that crosses through a narrow canyon where the walls close to just 22 feet wide at the top. Hiking through water for about 60% of the hike up the streams that wind their way through these breathtaking slot canyons, you will see hanging gardens bursting from the red canyon walls, trickling water threading through cracks in the canyon walls and sprouting patches of moss, waterfalls sliding over the sandstone, and sandy banks with towering ponderosas. However, while this wondrous journey is sure to enchant hikers, it should be noted that hiking through the Zion Narrows is extremely dangerous, as flash floods can come quickly and the entire area is a huge drainage. Rainstorms up to 50 miles away can storm down the canyon and every year hikers die on this trail. Make sure to check the weather report in advance to make sure there is NO RAIN whatsoever in the forecast. However, with proper precautions, this hike, which is rated as one of the best hikes in the entire U.S. National Park system, is truly unparalleled.
Annapurna Circuit, Nepal
Hiking through dramatic mountainscapes on the roof of the world
Any serious hiker or trekker dreams of going to Nepal to journey through the world’s most dramatic mountain landscape. While most hikers think of Kathmandu and Everest when they hear the word Nepal, the Annapurna circuit (which circumnavigates the Annapurna massif) not only has staggering snow-capped and rugged peaks providing for a spectacular backdrop, but the hike also offers trekkers great opportunities to see a wide range of natural and cultural diversity.
This 3-week trek allows you to stay in comfortable lodges as you hike from lush sub-tropical landscapes into the highest mountains in the world (beware of altitude sickness as the trek goes to a elevation of 17,749 feet). As you hike the Annapurna Circuit, you will get to interact with the Tibetan mountain peoples, see Buddhist temples, visit teahouses, soak in hot springs and take in some of the most awe-inspiring scenery in the entire world.
Inca Trail, Peru
Discovering ancient civilizations and incredible scenery
Most people who know something about travel, know about the famous and world-renowned Inca Trail. While some of the more hard-core types out there may think of this amazing trek as cliché, the truth is that this trail is popular for a reason. Peru offers some of the most beautiful South American mountainous scenery and, while some criticize the trail for being over-regulated and too popular, Machu Picchu is a destination worth seeing and the hike along the way is sure not to disappoint, with plenty of scenic vistas and amazing views.
Along with offering spectacular scenery, the Inca Trail is not only safe and easy to organize, it also allows trekkers to hike through jungle to high alpine terrain, visit 3 sets of Inca ruins along the way, and take in the beauty of the Peruvian mountains over the 3-night, 4-day hike. Plus, at the end of the journey, hikers will arrive at one of the most celebrated man-made destinations on Earth.
Tiger Leaping Gorge, China
Mystery and lush beauty in China's Tiger Leaping Gorge
This 15-km gorge located along the Yangtzee River between approximately 6,000-meter Jade Dragon Snow Mountain and the 5,300-meter Haba Xueshan mountain, in China where rapids pass under a series of dramatic 2,000-meter cliffs. The gorge got its name from a legend that says a tiger once jumped the narrowest point of the gorge to escape a hunter (which is still 25 meters). As one of the world’s deepest river canyons, Tiger Leaping Gorge is a beautiful and scenic hike for those adventurous trekkers.
The high-road trail is well-maintained and marked and takes hikers on a 14-mile journey with varied mountain views that features a surprising variety of micro-ecosystems, waterfalls and even guesthouses where hikers can stay along the route.
While this gorgeous gorge is a essential and protected part of the World Heritage site of the Three parallel Rivers of Yunnan, the Chinese government has proposed building another hydroelectric dam that would flood this place—meaning hikers interested in seeing this beautiful, lush canyon should probably head there sooner rather than later.
Mount Kiliminjaro, Tanzania
Walking to the top of one of the seven summits
If summiting the tallest point on any continent has always had major appeal, but you are not sure you’re up for a technical, dangerous and rigorous climb, then hiking to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro is a great option. Kilimanjaro is often called the world’s tallest walkable mountain, because while it stands at nearly 20,000 feet, no technical climbing skills or equipment are needed (mind you, this does not mean it is an easy hike—the journey is still physically demanding and people die every year from altitude sickness on this mountain).
There are several routes to the top of the tallest free-standing mountain in the world and the highest point in Africa is not only of the seven summits (the tallest points on each of the seven continents), but it’s also one of the most diverse and varied hikes in the world. Hikers start near the equator and hike through every climatic zone on the 6-day, 5-night trek that leads you from hot grasslands through temperate forests to glacial valleys and a frigid summit.
Kalalau Trail, Kauai, Hawaii
Green cliffs and blue ocean on Kauai's Kalalau trail
Kauai’s Na Pali coastline, which translates as “the cliffs” and which distinguishes the most impressive feature of this stretch of coastline boasts some of the most dramatically beautiful scenery in the world. Sheer cliffs dropping into the blue Pacific waters below, lush tropical valleys with picture-perfect waterfalls, green, velvet coated mountains and waves crashing dramatically into the rocky cliffs mark this hike into the remote and protected areas of coastline, where you can also spot pods of dolphins, humpback whales and sea turtles off the coast.
The 11-mile trail etches into the cliffs that raise as much as 4,000 feet above the ocean below and crosses 5 major valleys and countless smaller ones. The sometimes-treacherous trail takes most experienced and fit hikers one day and many hikers two, who camp in a permitted spot along the way. The trail was first built in the late 1800s, with portions rebuilt in the 1930s. It is almost never level, and in some spots the trail is quite narrow along cliffs dropping hundreds or thousands of feet to the ocean below.
Torres del Paine Circuit, Chile
Hike past glaciers and dramatic cliffs on Torres del Paine in Patagonia
Those looking for dramatic alpine landscapes, glacial fields, astonishing, jagged mountainscapes and a chance to get a look at the stunning spires of pink granite that make the famous towers of Paine should hike the Torres del Paine Circuit in Chile’s Patagonia mountains. Named one of the 50 places to visit in your lifetime by National Geographic, as well as being named a UNESCO biosphere reserve, this 100-km circuit offers surreal mountain vistas, glacial lakes, unique wildlife. You might even see a glacier calving. The wondrous track takes you through Magellenic forest, muddy bog, rocky gullies and over makeshift bridges.
Hikers should be weary that while this region is totally gorgeous, it is also notorious for inclement and often quite horrendous weather—meaning that not only will your pack be heavy laden with all of the appropriate gear to keep you warm and dry in the event of a storm, but it is also possible to get stuck in a bad storm or run into closed portions of the trail. But, the bad weather keeps this trek from getting overly crowded and you’ll feel all the more rough’n’tumble and accomplished for having braved harsh conditions (and those towering spires of the Paine will probably look all the more beautiful).
Tour de Mont Blanc, France
Hike around Europe's highest peak (and drink wine at night)
Regularly making lists as one of the best hikes in the world, this route circumambulates Mont Blanc, Europe’s highest peak standing at just over 15,000 feet. The 170-km hike offers stunning views of Mount Blanc and other Alp peaks, beautiful green valleys, blue alpine lakes and huge glaciers. The well-marked and maintained trails also lead hikers past wild chamois and ibexes, allow them to climb iron ladders bolted to the mountains and enjoy the alpine charm of the French Alps.
The other great part of this hike? While you may not feel quite as tough staying in the comfortable and warm refuges (hiking huts) along the way, not having to carry food or a tent makes for much lighter loads. Also, while opting to take the cable cars and chair lifts along the way could be considered cheating, it’s a great way to shorten your hike on certain days and be able to take in all the beautiful scenery without having to be too hardcore. Plus, the refuges offer comfort along the route—serving up hearty and delicious French food and wine and allowing hikers the chance to stalk up on food and supplies.
West Coast Trail, British Columbia, Canada
Temperate rain forests, mountains and beach on Canada's West Coast Trail
If you are looking for a surreal experience hiking through pristine Canadian wilderness, catching beautiful vistas of both temperate rain forests, rugged coastlines and dramatic mountain peaks, then the West Coast Trail is an absolute must. Hikers will awake to misty dawns, enjoy unbelievable sunsets, cross boulders and logs over rivers, scramble up creeks, hike past waterfalls, be dwarfed by enormous trees in an old growth forest, spot whales, sea lions, minks and maybe even bears or wolves, and check out shipwrecks and other historical sites.
This unique, stunning hike with immensely varied terrain can be difficult to get one of the limited permits available every summer and costing about C$200 per person it is also the most expensive hike in Canada. Also, inclement weather even in the summer months can make for heavy packs for climbing over mossy rocks and all of those ladders. That being said, this hike is well worth both the money and the heavy pack, as no other hike in North America offers such varied scenery from forest to mountains to sea.
2011年1月27日 星期四
Textile printing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts, not to train. Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how-to content or by moving it to Wikiversity or Wikibooks. (September 2009)
Design for a hand woodblock printed textile, showing the complexity of the blocks used to make repeating patterns. Evenlode by William Morris, 1883.
Evenlode block-printed fabric.
Textile printing is the process of applying colour to fabric in definite patterns or designs. In properly printed fabrics the colour is bonded with the fiber, so as to resist washing and friction. Textile printing is related to dyeing but, whereas in dyeing proper the whole fabric is uniformly covered with one colour, in printing one or more colours are applied to it in certain parts only, and in sharply defined patterns.
In printing, wooden blocks, stencils, engraved plates, rollers, or silkscreens are used to place colours on the fabric. Colourants used in printing contain dyes thickened to prevent the colour from spreading by capillary attraction beyond the limits of the pattern or design.
Traditional textile printing techniques may be broadly categorised into four styles:
Direct printing, in which colourants containing dyes, thickeners, and the mordants or substances necessary for fixing the colour on the cloth are printed in the desired pattern.
The printing of a mordant in the desired pattern prior to dyeing cloth; the color adheres only where the mordant was printed.
Resist dyeing, in which a wax or other substance is printed onto fabric which is subsequently dyed. The waxed areas do not accept the dye, leaving uncoloured patterns against a coloured ground.
Discharge printing, in which a bleaching agent is printed onto previously dyed fabrics to remove some or all of the colour.
Resist and discharge techniques were particularly fashionable in the 19th century, as were combination techniques in which indigo resist was used to create blue backgrounds prior to block-printing of other colours.[1] Most modern industrialised printing uses direct printing techniques.
Contents [hide]
1 Origins
2 Technology
3 Methods of printing
3.1 Hand block printing
3.2 Perrotine printing
3.3 Engraved copperplate printing
3.4 Roller printing, cylinder printing, or machine printing
3.5 Stencil printing
3.6 Screen-printing
3.7 Digital textile printing
3.8 Other methods of printing
4 Preparation of cloth for printing
5 Preparation of colours
6 Selecting thickening agents
6.1 Starch paste
6.2 Gums
6.3 Albumen
6.4 Printing thickeners and the dye system
7 Printing paste preparation
8 Silk printing
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
[edit]Origins
Woodblock printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns used widely throughout East Asia and probably originating in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later paper. As a method of printing on cloth, the earliest surviving examples from China date to before 220, and from Egypt to the 4th century.[2]
Textile printing was known in Europe, via the Islamic world, from about the 12th century, and widely used. However, the European dyes tended to run, which restricted the use of printed patterns. Fairly large and ambitious designs were printed for decorative purposes such as wall-hangings and lectern-cloths, where this was less of a problem as they did not need washing. When paper became common, the technology was rapidly used on that for woodcut prints.[3] Superior cloth was also imported from Islamic countries, but this was much more expensive.
The Incas of Peru, Chile and the Aztecs of Mexico also practiced textile printing previous to the Spanish Invasion in 1519; but, owing to the imperfect character of their records before that date, it is impossible to say whether they discovered the art for themselves, or, in some way, learned its principles from the Asiatics.
During the latter half of the 17th century the French brought directly by sea, from their colonies on the east coast of India, samples of Indian blue and white resist prints, and along with them, particulars of the processes by which they had been produced, which produced washable fabrics.
[edit]Technology
Textile printing was introduced into England in 1676 by a French refugee who opened works, in that year, on the banks of the Thames near Richmond. Curiously enough this is the first print-works on record; but the nationality and political status of its founder are sufficient to prove that printing was previously carried on in France. In Germany, too, textile printing was in all probability well established before it spread to England, for, towards the end of the 17th century, the district of Augsburg was celebrated for its printed linens, a reputation not likely to have been built up had the industry been introduced later than 1676.
On the continent of Europe the commercial importance of calico printing seems to have been almost immediately recognized, and in consequence it spread and developed there much more rapidly than in England, where it was neglected and practically at a standstill for nearly ninety years after its introduction. During the last two decades of the 17th century and the earlier ones of the 18th new works were started in France, Germany, Switzerland and Austria; but it was only in 1738 that calico printing was first, practiced in Scotland, and not until twenty-six years later that Messrs Clayton of Bamber Bridge, near Preston, established in 1764 the first print-works in Lancashire, and thus laid the foundation of what has since become one of the most important industries of the county and indeed of the country. At the present time calico printing is carried on extensively in every quarter of the globe, and it is pretty safe to say that there is scarcely a civilized country in either hemisphere where a print-works does not exist.
From an artistic point of view most of the pioneer work in calico printing was done by the French; and so rapid was their advance in this branch of the business that they soon came to be acknowledged as its leading exponents. Their styles of design and schemes of colour were closely followed-even deliberately copied by all other European printers; arid, from the early days of the industry down to the latter half of the 10th century, the productions of the French printers in Jouy, Beauvais, Rouen, Alsace-Lorraine, &c., were looked upon as representing all that was best in artistic calico printing. This reputation was established by the superiority of their earlier work, which, whatever else it may have lacked, possessed in a high degree the two main qualities essential to all good decorative work, viz., appropriateness of pattern and excellency of workmanship. If, occasionally, the earlier designers permitted themselves to indulge in somewhat bizarre fancies, they at least carefully refrained from any attempt to produce those pseudo-realistic effects the undue straining after which in later times ultimately led to the degradation of not only French calico printing design, but of that of all other European nations who followed their lead. The practice of the older craftsmen, at their best, was to treat their ornament in a way at once broad, simple and direct, thoroughly artistic and perfectly adapted to the means by which it had to be reproduced. The result was that their designs were characterized, on the one hand, by those qualities of breadth, flatness of field, simplicity of treatment arid pureness of tint so rightly prized by the artist; and, on the other, by their entire freedom from those meretricious effects of naturalistic projection and recession so dear to the modern mind and so utterly opposed to the principles of applied art.
[edit]Methods of printing
There are seven distinct methods at present in use for producing coloured patterns on cloth:
[edit]Hand block printing
Main article: Woodblock printing on textiles
Woman doing Block Printing at Halasur village, Karnataka, India.
This process, though considered by some to be the most artistic, is the earliest, simplest and slowest of all methods of printing.
In this process, a design is drawn upon, or transferred to, a prepared wooden block. A separate block is required for each distinct colour in the design.
A blockcutter carves out the wood around the heavier masses first, leaving the finer and more delicate work until the last so as to avoid any risk of injuring it during the cutting of the coarser parts. When finished, the block presents the appearance of flat relief carving, with the design standing out.
Fine details are very difficult to cut in wood, and, even when successfully cut, wear down very rapidly or break off in printing. They are therefore almost invariably built up in strips of brass or copper, bent to shape and driven edgewise into the flat surface of the block. This method is known as coppering.
To print the design on the fabric, the printer applies color to the block and presses it firmly and steadily on the cloth, ensuring a good impression by striking it smartly on the back with a wooden mallet. The second impression is made in the same way, the printer taking care to see that it fits exactly to the first, a point which he can make sure of by means of the pins with which the blocks are provided at each corner and which are arranged in such a way that when those at the right side or at the top of the block fall upon those at the left side or the bottom of the previous impression the two printings join up exactly and continue the pattern without a break. Each succeeding impression is made in precisely the same manner until the length of cloth is fully printed. When this is done it is wound over the drying rollers, thus bringing forward a fresh length to be treated similarly.
If the pattern contains several colours the cloth is usually first printed throughout with one, then dried, and printed with the second, the same operations being repeated until all the colours are printed.
Block printing by hand is a slow process it is, however, capable of yielding highly artistic results, some of which are unobtainable by any other method.
[edit]Perrotine printing
The perrotine is a block-printing machine invented by Perrot of Rouen in 1834, and practically speaking is the only successful mechanical device ever introduced for this purpose. For some reason or other it has rarely been used in England, but its value was almost immediately recognized on the Continent, and although block printing of all sorts has been replaced to such an enormous extent by roller printing, the perrotine is still largely employed in French, German and Italian works.
The construction of this ingenious machine is too complex to describe here without the aid of several detailed drawings, but its mode of action is roughly as follows: Three large blocks (3 ft. long by 3 to 5 in. wide), with the pattern cut or cast on them in relief, are brought to bear successively on the three faces of a specially constructed printing table over which the cloth passes (together with its backing of printers blanket) after each impression. The faces of the table are arranged at right angles to each other, and the blocks work in slides similarly placed, so that their engraved faces are perfectly parallel to the tables. Each block is moreover provided with its own particular colour trough, distributing brush, and woolen colour pad or sieve, and is supplied automatically with colour by these appliances during the whole time that the machine is in motion. The first effect of starting the machine is to cause the colour sieves, which have a reciprocating motion, to pass over, and receive a charge of colour from, the rollers, fixed to revolve, in the colour troughs. They then return to their original position between the tables and the printing blocks, coming in contact on the way with the distributing brushes, which spread the colour evenly over their entire surfaces. At this point the blocks advance and are gently pressed twice against the colour pads (or sieves) which then retreat once more towards the colour troughs. During this last movement the cloth to be printed is drawn forward over the first table, and, immediately the colour pads are sufficiently out of the way, the block advances and, with some force, stamps the first impression on it. The second block is now put into gear and the foregoing operations are repeated for both blocks, the cloth advancing, after each impression, a distance exactly equal to the width of the blocks. After the second block has made its impression the third comes into play in precisely the same way, so that as the cloth leaves the machines it's fully printed in three separate colours, each fitting into its proper place and completing the pattern. If necessary the forward movement of the cloth can be arrested without in any way interfering with the motion of the block, san arrangement which allows any insufficiently printed impression to be repeated in exactly the same place with a precision practically impossible in hand printing.
For certain classes of work the perrotine possesses great advantages over the hand-block; for not only is the rate of production greatly increased, but the joining up of the various impressions to each other is much more exacting fact, as a rule, no sign of a break in continuity of line can be noticed in well-executed work. On the other hand, however, the perrotine can only be applied to the production of patterns containing not more than three colours nor exceeding five inches in vertical repeat, whereas hand block printing can cope with patterns of almost any scale and continuing any number of colours. All things considered, therefore, the two processes cannot be compared on the same basis: the perrotine is best for work of a utilitarian character and the hand-block for decorative work in which the design only repeats every 15 to 20 in. and contains colours varying in number from one to a dozen. -
[edit]Engraved copperplate printing
Main article: Roller printing on textiles
The printing of textiles from engraved copperplates was first practiced in the United Kingdom by Thomas Bell in 1770.
The presses first used were of the ordinary letterpress type, the engraved plate being fixed in the place of the type. In later improvements the well-known cylinder press was employed; the plate was inked mechanically and cleaned off by passing under a sharp blade of steel; and the cloth, instead of being laid on the plate, was passed round the pressure cylinder. The plate was raised into frictional contact with the cylinder and in passing under it transferred its ink to the cloth.
The great difficulty in plate printing was to make the various impressions join up exactly; and, as this could never be done with any certainty, the process was eventually confined to patterns complete in one repeat, and was made obsolete by roller printing.
[edit]Roller printing, cylinder printing, or machine printing
Main article: Roller printing on textiles
This elegant and efficient process was patented and worked by Bell in 1785 only fifteen years after his application of the engraved plate to textiles. Bell's first patent was for a machine to print six colours at once, but, owing probably to its incomplete development, this was not immediately successful, although the principle of the method was shown to be practical by the printing of one colour with perfectly satisfactory results. The difficulty was to keep the six rollers, each carrying a portion of the pattern, in perfect register with each other. This defect was soon overcome by Adam Parkinson of Manchester, and in 1785, the year of its invention, Bells machine with Parkinson's improvement was successfully employed by Messrs Livesey, Hargreaves, Hall & Co., of Bamber Bridge, Preston, for the printing of calico in from two to six colours at a single operation.
The advantages possessed by roller printing over other contemoporary processes were three: firstly, its high productivity, 10,000 to 12,000 yards being commonly printed in one day of ten hours by a single-colour machine; secondly, by its capacity of being applied to the reproduction of every style of design, ranging from the fine delicate lines of copperplate engraving and the small repeats and limited colours of the perrotine to the broadest effects of block printing and to patterns varying in repeat from I to 80 in.; and thirdly, the wonderful exactitude with which each portion of an elaborate multicolour pattern can be fitted into its proper place without faulty joints at its points of repetition.
[edit]Stencil printing
The art of stenciling is very old. It has been applied to the decoration of textile fabrics from time immemorial by the Japanese, and, of late years, has found increasing employment in Europe for certain classes of decorative work on woven goods for furnishing purposes.
The pattern is cut out of a sheet of stout paper or thin metal with a sharp-pointed knife, the uncut portions representing the part that is to be reserved or left uncoloured. The sheet is now laid on the material to be decorated and colour is brushed through its interstices.
It is obvious that with suitable planning an all over pattern may be just as easily produced by this process as by hand or machine printing, and that moreover, if several plates are used, as many colours as plates may be introduced into it. The peculiarity of stenciled patterns is that they have to be held together by ties, that is to say, certain parts of them have to be left uncut, so as to connect them with each other, and prevent them from falling apart in separate pieces. For instance, a complete circle cannot be cut without its center dropping out, and, consequently, its outline has to be interrupted at convenient points by ties or uncut portions. Similarly with other objects. The necessity for ties exercises great influence on the design, and in the hands of a designer of indifferent ability they may be very unsightly. On the other hand, a capable man utilizes them to supply the drawing, and when thus treated they form an integral part of the pattern and enhance its artistic value whilst complying with the conditions and the process.
For single-colour work a stenciling machine was patented in 1894 by S. H. Sharp. It consists of an endless stencil plate of thin sheet steel that passes continuously over a revolving cast iron cylinder. Between the two the cloth to be ornamented passes and the colour is forced on to it, through the holes in the stencil, by mechanical means.
[edit]Screen-printing
Screen printing is by far the most used technology today. Two types exist: rotary screen printing and flat (bed) screen printing. A blade squeezes the printing paste through openings in the screen onto the fabric.
[edit]Digital textile printing
Digital textile printing, also known as direct to garment printing, DTG printing, and digital garment printing is a process of printing on textiles and garments using specialized or modified inkjet technology. Inkjet printing on fabric is also possible with an inkjet printer by using fabric sheets with a removable paper backing. Today major inkjet technology manufacturers can offer specialized products designed for direct printing on textiles, not only for sampling but also for bulk production.
[edit]Other methods of printing
Although most work is executed throughout by one or other of the seven distinct processes mentioned above, combinations of them are not infrequently employed. Sometimes a pattern is printed partly by machine and partly by block; and sometimes a cylindrical block is used along with engraved copper-rollers in the ordinary printing machine. The block in this latter case is in all respects, except that of shape, identical with a flat wood or coppered block, but, instead of being dipped in colour, it receives its supply from an endless blanket, one part of which works in contact with colour-furnishing rollers and the other part with the cylindrical block. This block is known as a surface or peg roller. Many attempts have been made to print multicolour patterns with surface rollers alone, but hitherto with little success, owing to their irregularity in action and to the difficulty of preventing them from warping. These defects are not present in the printing of linoleum in which opaque oil colours are used, colours that neither sink into the body of the hard linoleum nor tend to warp the roller.'Inkjet Printing on Fabric'is a way anyone can print on fabric using their home printer. Specially treated Cotton as well as various types of Silk fabric sheets are available in various sizes. The fabric sheets have a paper backing which enable the fabric to go through the printer. Family photos printed on fabric are used to make memory quilts, pillows, notebook covers, wall hangings and many other products.
The printing of yarns and warping is extensively practiced. It is usually carried on by a simple sort of surface printing machine and calls for no special mention.
Lithographic printing, too, has been applied to textile fabrics with somewhat qualified success. Its irregularity and the difficulty of printing all over patterns to repeat properly, have restricted its use to the production of decorative panels, equal in size to that of the plate or stone, and complete in themselves.
Pad printing has been recently introduced to textile printing for the specific purpose of printing garment tags (care labels).
[edit]Preparation of cloth for printing
Goods intended for calico printing ought to be exceptionally well-bleached, otherwise mysterious stains, and other serious defects, are certain to arise during subsequent operations.
The chemical preparations used for special styles will be mentioned in their proper places; but a general prepare, employed for most colours that are developed and fixed by steaming only, consists in passing the bleached calico through a weak solution of sulfated or turkey red oil containing from 21/2 per cent, to 5 per cent, of fatty acid. Some colours are printed on pure bleached cloth, but all patterns containing alizarine red, rose and salmon shades, are considerably brightened by the presence of oil, and indeed very few, if any, colours are detrimentally affected by it.
Apart from wet preparations the cloth has always to be brushed, to free it from loose nap, flocks and dust that it picks up whilst stored. Frequently, too, it has to be sheared by being passed over rapidly revolving knives arranged spirally round an axle, which rapidly and effectually cuts off all filaments and knots, leaving the cloth perfectly smooth and clean and in a condition fit to receive impressions of the most delicate engraving. Some figured fabrics, especially those woven in checks, stripes and crossovers, require very careful stretching and straightening on a special machine, known as a stenter, before they can be printed with certain formal styles of pattern which are intended in one way or another to correspond with the cloth pattern. Finally, all descriptions of cloth are wound round hollow wooden or iron centers into rolls of convenient size for mounting on the printing machines.
[edit]Preparation of colours
The art of making colours for textile printing demands both chemical knowledge and extensive technical experience, for their ingredients must not only be properly proportioned to each other, but they must be specially chosen and compounded for the particular style of work in hand. For a pattern containing only one colour any mixture whatever may he used so long as it fulfils all conditions as to shade, quality and fastness; but where two or more colours are associated in the same design each must be capable of undergoing without injury the various operations necessary for the development and fixation of the others.
All printing pastes whether containing colouring matter or not are known technically as colours, and are referred to as such in the sequence.
Colours vary considerably in composition. The greater number of them contain all the elements necessary for the direct production and fixation of the colour-lake. Some few contain the colouring matter alone and require various after-treatments for its fixation; and others again are simply mordants thickened. A mordant is the metallic salt or other substance that combines with the colouring principle to form an insoluble colour-lake, either directly by steaming, or indirectly by dyeing.
All printing colours require thickening, for the twofold object of enabling them to be transferred from colour-box to cloth without loss and to prevent them from running or spreading beyond the limits of the pattern.
[edit]Selecting thickening agents
The printing thickeners used depend on the printing technique and fabric and dyestuff used. Typical thickening agents are starch derivatives, flour, gum arabic, guar gum derivatives, tamarind, sodium alginate, sodium polyacrylate, gum Senegal and gum tragacanth, British gum or dextrine and albumen.
Hot water soluble tickening agents as native starch are made into pastes by boiling in double or jacketed pans, between the inner and outer casings of which either steam or water may be made to circulate, for boiling and cooling purposes. Mechanical agitators are also fitted in these pans to mix the various ingredients together, and to destroy lumps and prevent the formation of lumps, keeping the contents thoroughly stirred up during the whole time they are being boiled and cooled to make a smooth paste. Most tickening agents used today are cold soluble and require only extensive stirring.
[edit]Starch paste
This is made from wheat starch, cold water, and olive oil, and boiled for thickening.
Non modified Starch was the most extensively used of all the thickenings. It is applicable to all but strongly alkaline or strongly acid colours. With the former it thickens up to a stiff unworkable jelly, while mineral acids or acid salts convert it into dextrine, thus diminishing its viscosity or thickening power. Acetic and formic acids have no action on it even at the boil. Today mostly modified carboxymethylated cold soluble starches are used which have a stable viscosity and are easier to rinse out of the fabric and give reproducible "short" pasty rheology.
Flour paste is made in a similar way to starch paste. At the present time it is rarely used for anything but the thickening of aluminum and iron mordants. In the impressive textile traditions of Japan, several techniques using starch paste resists of rice flour have been perfected over several centuries.
[edit]Gums
Gum arabic and gum Senegal are both very old thickenings, but their expense prevents them from being used for any but pale delicate tints. They are especially useful thickenings for the light ground colours of soft muslins and sateens on account of the property they possess of dissolving completely out of the fibers of the cloth in the washing process after printing and have a long flowing, viscous rheology, giving sharp print and good penetration in the cloth. Today guar gum and tamarind derivates offer a cheaper alternative.
British gum or dextrin is prepared by heating starch. It varies considerably in composition sometimes being only slightly roasted and consequently only partly converted into dextrine, and at other times being highly torrefied, and almost completely soluble in cold water and very dark in colour. Its thickening power decreases and its gummy nature increases as the temperature at which it is roasted is raised. The lighter coloured gums or dextrines will make a good thickening with from 2 to 3 lb of gum to one gallon of water, but the darkest and most highly calcined require from 6 to lb per gallon to give a substantial paste. Between these limits all qualities are obtainable. The darkest qualities are very useful for strongly acid colours, and with the exception of gum Senegal, are the best for strongly alkaline colours and discharges. Like the natural gums, neither light nor dark British gums penetrate as well into the fiber of the cloth so deeply as pure starch or flour, and are therefore unsuitable for very dark strong colours.
Gum tragacanth, or Dragon, is one of the most indispensable thickening agents possessed by the textile printer. It may be mixed in any proportion with starch or flour and is equally useful for pigment colours and mordant colours. When added to starch paste it increases its penetrative power, adds to its softness without diminishing its thickness, makes it easier to wash Out of the fabric and produces much more level colours than starch paste alone. Used by itself it is suitable for printing all kinds of dark grounds on goods that are required to retain their soft clothy feel. A tragacanth mucilage may be made either by allowing it to stand a day or two in contact with cold water or by soaking it for twenty-four hours in warm water and then boiling it up until it is perfectly smooth and homogeneous. If boiled under pressure it gives a very fine, smooth mucilage (not a solution proper), much thinner than if made in the cold.
Starch always leave on the printed cloth somewhat harsh in feel (unless modified carboxymethylated starches are used) but are well suited to obtain very dark colours. Gum Senegal, gum arabic or modified guar gum thickening are yielding beautifully clear and perfectly even tints comparing to starch, but give lighter colours and are washedaway too much during the rinsing or washing of the printed fabric and are thuss less suited for very dark colours. (The gums are apparently preventing the colours from combining fully with the fibers.) So a printing stock solution is mostly a combination of modified starch and gum stock solutions usually made by dissolving 6 or 8 lb of either in one gallon of water.
[edit]Albumen
Albumen is both a thickening and a fixing agent for insoluble pigments such as chrome yellow, the ochres, vermilion and ultramarine. Albumen is always dissolved in the cold, a process that takes several days when large quantities are required. The usual strength of the solution is 4 lb per gallon of water for blood albumen, and 6 lb per gallon for egg albumen. The latter is expensive and only used for the lightest shades. For most purposes one part of albumen solution is mixed with one part of tragacanth mucilage, this proportion of albumen being found amply sufficient for the fixation of all ordinary pigment colours. In special instances the blood albumen solution is made as strong as 50 per cent, but this is only in cases where very dark colours are required to be absolutely fast to washing. After printing, albumen thickened colours are exposed to hot steam, which coagulates the albumen and effectually fixes the colours.
[edit]Printing thickeners and the dye system
Combinations of cold water soluble carboxymethylated starch, guar gum and tamarind derivatives are most commonly used today in disperse screen printing on polyester, for cotton printing with reactive dyes alginates are used, sodium polyacrylates for pigment printing and with vat dyes on cotton only carboxymethylated starch is used.
[edit]Printing paste preparation
Formerly colours were always prepared for printing by boiling the thickening agent, the colouring matter and solvents, &c., together, then cooling and adding the various fixing agents. At the present time, however, concentrated solutions of the colouring matters and other adjuncts are often simply added to the cold thickenings, of which large quantities are kept in stock.
Colours are reduced in shade by simply adding more stock (printing) paste. For example, a dark blue containing 4 oz. of methylene blue per gallon may readily be made into a pale shade by adding to it thirty times its bulk of starch paste or gum, as the case may be. Similarly with other colours.
Before printing it is very essential to strain or sieve all colours in order to free them from lumps, fine sand, &c., which would inevitably damage the highly polished surface of the engraved rollers and result in bad printing. Every scratch on the surface of a roller prints a fine line in the cloth, and too much care, therefore, cannot be taken to remove, as far as possible, all grit and other hard particles from every colour.
The straining is usually done by squeezing the colour through filter cloths as artisanal fine cotton, silk or industrial woven nylon. Fine sieves can also be employed for colours that are used hot or are very strongly alkaline or acid.
[edit]Silk printing
Silk printing calls for no special mention. The colours and methods employed are the same as for wool, except that in the case of silk no preparation of the material is required before printing and the ordinary dry steaming is preferable to damp steaming.
Both acid and basic dyes play an important role in silk printing, which for the most part is confined to the production of articles for wearing apparel dress goods, handkerchiefs, scarves, articles for which bright colours are in demand. Alizarine and other mordant colours are mainly used, or ought to be, for any goods that have to resist repeated washings and prolonged exposure to light. In this case the silk frequently requires to be prepared in alizarine oil, after which it is treated in all respects like cotton steamed, washed and soaped the colours used being the same.
Silk is especially adapted to discharge and reserve effects. Most of the acid dyes can be discharged in the same way as when they are dyed on wool; and reserved effects are produced by printing mechanical resists, such as waxes and fats, on the cloth and then dyeing it up in cold dye-liquor. The great affinity of the silk fiber for basic and acid dyestuffs enables it to extract colouring matter from cold solutions, and permanently combine with it to form an insoluble lake. After dyeing, the reserve prints are washed, first in cold water to get rid of any colour not fixed on the fiber, and then in hot water or benzene, to dissolve out the resisting bodies.
As a rule, after steaming, silk goods are only washed in hot water, but, of course, those printed entirely in mordant dyes will stand soaping, and indeed require it to brighten the colours and soften the material. (E. K.)
[edit]Notes
^ Tozer and Levitt, Fabric of Society: A Century of People and Their Clothes 1770-1870
^ Ancient Coptic Christian Fabrics from Egypt
^ An Introduction to a History of Woodcut, Arthur M. Hind, p, Houghton Mifflin Co. 1935 (in USA), reprinted Dover Publications, 1963 ISBN 0-486-20952-0
[edit]References
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Kadolph, Sara J., ed.: Textiles, 10th edition, Pearson/Prentice-Hall, 2007, ISBN 0-13-118769-4
Tozer, Jane and Sarah Levitt, Fabric of Society: A Century of People and Their Clothes 1770-1870, Laura Ashley Press, ISBN 0950891304
[edit]External links
Screen printing industry resource
Tex Visions - Modern textile printing resource
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts, not to train. Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how-to content or by moving it to Wikiversity or Wikibooks. (September 2009)
Design for a hand woodblock printed textile, showing the complexity of the blocks used to make repeating patterns. Evenlode by William Morris, 1883.
Evenlode block-printed fabric.
Textile printing is the process of applying colour to fabric in definite patterns or designs. In properly printed fabrics the colour is bonded with the fiber, so as to resist washing and friction. Textile printing is related to dyeing but, whereas in dyeing proper the whole fabric is uniformly covered with one colour, in printing one or more colours are applied to it in certain parts only, and in sharply defined patterns.
In printing, wooden blocks, stencils, engraved plates, rollers, or silkscreens are used to place colours on the fabric. Colourants used in printing contain dyes thickened to prevent the colour from spreading by capillary attraction beyond the limits of the pattern or design.
Traditional textile printing techniques may be broadly categorised into four styles:
Direct printing, in which colourants containing dyes, thickeners, and the mordants or substances necessary for fixing the colour on the cloth are printed in the desired pattern.
The printing of a mordant in the desired pattern prior to dyeing cloth; the color adheres only where the mordant was printed.
Resist dyeing, in which a wax or other substance is printed onto fabric which is subsequently dyed. The waxed areas do not accept the dye, leaving uncoloured patterns against a coloured ground.
Discharge printing, in which a bleaching agent is printed onto previously dyed fabrics to remove some or all of the colour.
Resist and discharge techniques were particularly fashionable in the 19th century, as were combination techniques in which indigo resist was used to create blue backgrounds prior to block-printing of other colours.[1] Most modern industrialised printing uses direct printing techniques.
Contents [hide]
1 Origins
2 Technology
3 Methods of printing
3.1 Hand block printing
3.2 Perrotine printing
3.3 Engraved copperplate printing
3.4 Roller printing, cylinder printing, or machine printing
3.5 Stencil printing
3.6 Screen-printing
3.7 Digital textile printing
3.8 Other methods of printing
4 Preparation of cloth for printing
5 Preparation of colours
6 Selecting thickening agents
6.1 Starch paste
6.2 Gums
6.3 Albumen
6.4 Printing thickeners and the dye system
7 Printing paste preparation
8 Silk printing
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
[edit]Origins
Woodblock printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns used widely throughout East Asia and probably originating in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later paper. As a method of printing on cloth, the earliest surviving examples from China date to before 220, and from Egypt to the 4th century.[2]
Textile printing was known in Europe, via the Islamic world, from about the 12th century, and widely used. However, the European dyes tended to run, which restricted the use of printed patterns. Fairly large and ambitious designs were printed for decorative purposes such as wall-hangings and lectern-cloths, where this was less of a problem as they did not need washing. When paper became common, the technology was rapidly used on that for woodcut prints.[3] Superior cloth was also imported from Islamic countries, but this was much more expensive.
The Incas of Peru, Chile and the Aztecs of Mexico also practiced textile printing previous to the Spanish Invasion in 1519; but, owing to the imperfect character of their records before that date, it is impossible to say whether they discovered the art for themselves, or, in some way, learned its principles from the Asiatics.
During the latter half of the 17th century the French brought directly by sea, from their colonies on the east coast of India, samples of Indian blue and white resist prints, and along with them, particulars of the processes by which they had been produced, which produced washable fabrics.
[edit]Technology
Textile printing was introduced into England in 1676 by a French refugee who opened works, in that year, on the banks of the Thames near Richmond. Curiously enough this is the first print-works on record; but the nationality and political status of its founder are sufficient to prove that printing was previously carried on in France. In Germany, too, textile printing was in all probability well established before it spread to England, for, towards the end of the 17th century, the district of Augsburg was celebrated for its printed linens, a reputation not likely to have been built up had the industry been introduced later than 1676.
On the continent of Europe the commercial importance of calico printing seems to have been almost immediately recognized, and in consequence it spread and developed there much more rapidly than in England, where it was neglected and practically at a standstill for nearly ninety years after its introduction. During the last two decades of the 17th century and the earlier ones of the 18th new works were started in France, Germany, Switzerland and Austria; but it was only in 1738 that calico printing was first, practiced in Scotland, and not until twenty-six years later that Messrs Clayton of Bamber Bridge, near Preston, established in 1764 the first print-works in Lancashire, and thus laid the foundation of what has since become one of the most important industries of the county and indeed of the country. At the present time calico printing is carried on extensively in every quarter of the globe, and it is pretty safe to say that there is scarcely a civilized country in either hemisphere where a print-works does not exist.
From an artistic point of view most of the pioneer work in calico printing was done by the French; and so rapid was their advance in this branch of the business that they soon came to be acknowledged as its leading exponents. Their styles of design and schemes of colour were closely followed-even deliberately copied by all other European printers; arid, from the early days of the industry down to the latter half of the 10th century, the productions of the French printers in Jouy, Beauvais, Rouen, Alsace-Lorraine, &c., were looked upon as representing all that was best in artistic calico printing. This reputation was established by the superiority of their earlier work, which, whatever else it may have lacked, possessed in a high degree the two main qualities essential to all good decorative work, viz., appropriateness of pattern and excellency of workmanship. If, occasionally, the earlier designers permitted themselves to indulge in somewhat bizarre fancies, they at least carefully refrained from any attempt to produce those pseudo-realistic effects the undue straining after which in later times ultimately led to the degradation of not only French calico printing design, but of that of all other European nations who followed their lead. The practice of the older craftsmen, at their best, was to treat their ornament in a way at once broad, simple and direct, thoroughly artistic and perfectly adapted to the means by which it had to be reproduced. The result was that their designs were characterized, on the one hand, by those qualities of breadth, flatness of field, simplicity of treatment arid pureness of tint so rightly prized by the artist; and, on the other, by their entire freedom from those meretricious effects of naturalistic projection and recession so dear to the modern mind and so utterly opposed to the principles of applied art.
[edit]Methods of printing
There are seven distinct methods at present in use for producing coloured patterns on cloth:
[edit]Hand block printing
Main article: Woodblock printing on textiles
Woman doing Block Printing at Halasur village, Karnataka, India.
This process, though considered by some to be the most artistic, is the earliest, simplest and slowest of all methods of printing.
In this process, a design is drawn upon, or transferred to, a prepared wooden block. A separate block is required for each distinct colour in the design.
A blockcutter carves out the wood around the heavier masses first, leaving the finer and more delicate work until the last so as to avoid any risk of injuring it during the cutting of the coarser parts. When finished, the block presents the appearance of flat relief carving, with the design standing out.
Fine details are very difficult to cut in wood, and, even when successfully cut, wear down very rapidly or break off in printing. They are therefore almost invariably built up in strips of brass or copper, bent to shape and driven edgewise into the flat surface of the block. This method is known as coppering.
To print the design on the fabric, the printer applies color to the block and presses it firmly and steadily on the cloth, ensuring a good impression by striking it smartly on the back with a wooden mallet. The second impression is made in the same way, the printer taking care to see that it fits exactly to the first, a point which he can make sure of by means of the pins with which the blocks are provided at each corner and which are arranged in such a way that when those at the right side or at the top of the block fall upon those at the left side or the bottom of the previous impression the two printings join up exactly and continue the pattern without a break. Each succeeding impression is made in precisely the same manner until the length of cloth is fully printed. When this is done it is wound over the drying rollers, thus bringing forward a fresh length to be treated similarly.
If the pattern contains several colours the cloth is usually first printed throughout with one, then dried, and printed with the second, the same operations being repeated until all the colours are printed.
Block printing by hand is a slow process it is, however, capable of yielding highly artistic results, some of which are unobtainable by any other method.
[edit]Perrotine printing
The perrotine is a block-printing machine invented by Perrot of Rouen in 1834, and practically speaking is the only successful mechanical device ever introduced for this purpose. For some reason or other it has rarely been used in England, but its value was almost immediately recognized on the Continent, and although block printing of all sorts has been replaced to such an enormous extent by roller printing, the perrotine is still largely employed in French, German and Italian works.
The construction of this ingenious machine is too complex to describe here without the aid of several detailed drawings, but its mode of action is roughly as follows: Three large blocks (3 ft. long by 3 to 5 in. wide), with the pattern cut or cast on them in relief, are brought to bear successively on the three faces of a specially constructed printing table over which the cloth passes (together with its backing of printers blanket) after each impression. The faces of the table are arranged at right angles to each other, and the blocks work in slides similarly placed, so that their engraved faces are perfectly parallel to the tables. Each block is moreover provided with its own particular colour trough, distributing brush, and woolen colour pad or sieve, and is supplied automatically with colour by these appliances during the whole time that the machine is in motion. The first effect of starting the machine is to cause the colour sieves, which have a reciprocating motion, to pass over, and receive a charge of colour from, the rollers, fixed to revolve, in the colour troughs. They then return to their original position between the tables and the printing blocks, coming in contact on the way with the distributing brushes, which spread the colour evenly over their entire surfaces. At this point the blocks advance and are gently pressed twice against the colour pads (or sieves) which then retreat once more towards the colour troughs. During this last movement the cloth to be printed is drawn forward over the first table, and, immediately the colour pads are sufficiently out of the way, the block advances and, with some force, stamps the first impression on it. The second block is now put into gear and the foregoing operations are repeated for both blocks, the cloth advancing, after each impression, a distance exactly equal to the width of the blocks. After the second block has made its impression the third comes into play in precisely the same way, so that as the cloth leaves the machines it's fully printed in three separate colours, each fitting into its proper place and completing the pattern. If necessary the forward movement of the cloth can be arrested without in any way interfering with the motion of the block, san arrangement which allows any insufficiently printed impression to be repeated in exactly the same place with a precision practically impossible in hand printing.
For certain classes of work the perrotine possesses great advantages over the hand-block; for not only is the rate of production greatly increased, but the joining up of the various impressions to each other is much more exacting fact, as a rule, no sign of a break in continuity of line can be noticed in well-executed work. On the other hand, however, the perrotine can only be applied to the production of patterns containing not more than three colours nor exceeding five inches in vertical repeat, whereas hand block printing can cope with patterns of almost any scale and continuing any number of colours. All things considered, therefore, the two processes cannot be compared on the same basis: the perrotine is best for work of a utilitarian character and the hand-block for decorative work in which the design only repeats every 15 to 20 in. and contains colours varying in number from one to a dozen. -
[edit]Engraved copperplate printing
Main article: Roller printing on textiles
The printing of textiles from engraved copperplates was first practiced in the United Kingdom by Thomas Bell in 1770.
The presses first used were of the ordinary letterpress type, the engraved plate being fixed in the place of the type. In later improvements the well-known cylinder press was employed; the plate was inked mechanically and cleaned off by passing under a sharp blade of steel; and the cloth, instead of being laid on the plate, was passed round the pressure cylinder. The plate was raised into frictional contact with the cylinder and in passing under it transferred its ink to the cloth.
The great difficulty in plate printing was to make the various impressions join up exactly; and, as this could never be done with any certainty, the process was eventually confined to patterns complete in one repeat, and was made obsolete by roller printing.
[edit]Roller printing, cylinder printing, or machine printing
Main article: Roller printing on textiles
This elegant and efficient process was patented and worked by Bell in 1785 only fifteen years after his application of the engraved plate to textiles. Bell's first patent was for a machine to print six colours at once, but, owing probably to its incomplete development, this was not immediately successful, although the principle of the method was shown to be practical by the printing of one colour with perfectly satisfactory results. The difficulty was to keep the six rollers, each carrying a portion of the pattern, in perfect register with each other. This defect was soon overcome by Adam Parkinson of Manchester, and in 1785, the year of its invention, Bells machine with Parkinson's improvement was successfully employed by Messrs Livesey, Hargreaves, Hall & Co., of Bamber Bridge, Preston, for the printing of calico in from two to six colours at a single operation.
The advantages possessed by roller printing over other contemoporary processes were three: firstly, its high productivity, 10,000 to 12,000 yards being commonly printed in one day of ten hours by a single-colour machine; secondly, by its capacity of being applied to the reproduction of every style of design, ranging from the fine delicate lines of copperplate engraving and the small repeats and limited colours of the perrotine to the broadest effects of block printing and to patterns varying in repeat from I to 80 in.; and thirdly, the wonderful exactitude with which each portion of an elaborate multicolour pattern can be fitted into its proper place without faulty joints at its points of repetition.
[edit]Stencil printing
The art of stenciling is very old. It has been applied to the decoration of textile fabrics from time immemorial by the Japanese, and, of late years, has found increasing employment in Europe for certain classes of decorative work on woven goods for furnishing purposes.
The pattern is cut out of a sheet of stout paper or thin metal with a sharp-pointed knife, the uncut portions representing the part that is to be reserved or left uncoloured. The sheet is now laid on the material to be decorated and colour is brushed through its interstices.
It is obvious that with suitable planning an all over pattern may be just as easily produced by this process as by hand or machine printing, and that moreover, if several plates are used, as many colours as plates may be introduced into it. The peculiarity of stenciled patterns is that they have to be held together by ties, that is to say, certain parts of them have to be left uncut, so as to connect them with each other, and prevent them from falling apart in separate pieces. For instance, a complete circle cannot be cut without its center dropping out, and, consequently, its outline has to be interrupted at convenient points by ties or uncut portions. Similarly with other objects. The necessity for ties exercises great influence on the design, and in the hands of a designer of indifferent ability they may be very unsightly. On the other hand, a capable man utilizes them to supply the drawing, and when thus treated they form an integral part of the pattern and enhance its artistic value whilst complying with the conditions and the process.
For single-colour work a stenciling machine was patented in 1894 by S. H. Sharp. It consists of an endless stencil plate of thin sheet steel that passes continuously over a revolving cast iron cylinder. Between the two the cloth to be ornamented passes and the colour is forced on to it, through the holes in the stencil, by mechanical means.
[edit]Screen-printing
Screen printing is by far the most used technology today. Two types exist: rotary screen printing and flat (bed) screen printing. A blade squeezes the printing paste through openings in the screen onto the fabric.
[edit]Digital textile printing
Digital textile printing, also known as direct to garment printing, DTG printing, and digital garment printing is a process of printing on textiles and garments using specialized or modified inkjet technology. Inkjet printing on fabric is also possible with an inkjet printer by using fabric sheets with a removable paper backing. Today major inkjet technology manufacturers can offer specialized products designed for direct printing on textiles, not only for sampling but also for bulk production.
[edit]Other methods of printing
Although most work is executed throughout by one or other of the seven distinct processes mentioned above, combinations of them are not infrequently employed. Sometimes a pattern is printed partly by machine and partly by block; and sometimes a cylindrical block is used along with engraved copper-rollers in the ordinary printing machine. The block in this latter case is in all respects, except that of shape, identical with a flat wood or coppered block, but, instead of being dipped in colour, it receives its supply from an endless blanket, one part of which works in contact with colour-furnishing rollers and the other part with the cylindrical block. This block is known as a surface or peg roller. Many attempts have been made to print multicolour patterns with surface rollers alone, but hitherto with little success, owing to their irregularity in action and to the difficulty of preventing them from warping. These defects are not present in the printing of linoleum in which opaque oil colours are used, colours that neither sink into the body of the hard linoleum nor tend to warp the roller.'Inkjet Printing on Fabric'is a way anyone can print on fabric using their home printer. Specially treated Cotton as well as various types of Silk fabric sheets are available in various sizes. The fabric sheets have a paper backing which enable the fabric to go through the printer. Family photos printed on fabric are used to make memory quilts, pillows, notebook covers, wall hangings and many other products.
The printing of yarns and warping is extensively practiced. It is usually carried on by a simple sort of surface printing machine and calls for no special mention.
Lithographic printing, too, has been applied to textile fabrics with somewhat qualified success. Its irregularity and the difficulty of printing all over patterns to repeat properly, have restricted its use to the production of decorative panels, equal in size to that of the plate or stone, and complete in themselves.
Pad printing has been recently introduced to textile printing for the specific purpose of printing garment tags (care labels).
[edit]Preparation of cloth for printing
Goods intended for calico printing ought to be exceptionally well-bleached, otherwise mysterious stains, and other serious defects, are certain to arise during subsequent operations.
The chemical preparations used for special styles will be mentioned in their proper places; but a general prepare, employed for most colours that are developed and fixed by steaming only, consists in passing the bleached calico through a weak solution of sulfated or turkey red oil containing from 21/2 per cent, to 5 per cent, of fatty acid. Some colours are printed on pure bleached cloth, but all patterns containing alizarine red, rose and salmon shades, are considerably brightened by the presence of oil, and indeed very few, if any, colours are detrimentally affected by it.
Apart from wet preparations the cloth has always to be brushed, to free it from loose nap, flocks and dust that it picks up whilst stored. Frequently, too, it has to be sheared by being passed over rapidly revolving knives arranged spirally round an axle, which rapidly and effectually cuts off all filaments and knots, leaving the cloth perfectly smooth and clean and in a condition fit to receive impressions of the most delicate engraving. Some figured fabrics, especially those woven in checks, stripes and crossovers, require very careful stretching and straightening on a special machine, known as a stenter, before they can be printed with certain formal styles of pattern which are intended in one way or another to correspond with the cloth pattern. Finally, all descriptions of cloth are wound round hollow wooden or iron centers into rolls of convenient size for mounting on the printing machines.
[edit]Preparation of colours
The art of making colours for textile printing demands both chemical knowledge and extensive technical experience, for their ingredients must not only be properly proportioned to each other, but they must be specially chosen and compounded for the particular style of work in hand. For a pattern containing only one colour any mixture whatever may he used so long as it fulfils all conditions as to shade, quality and fastness; but where two or more colours are associated in the same design each must be capable of undergoing without injury the various operations necessary for the development and fixation of the others.
All printing pastes whether containing colouring matter or not are known technically as colours, and are referred to as such in the sequence.
Colours vary considerably in composition. The greater number of them contain all the elements necessary for the direct production and fixation of the colour-lake. Some few contain the colouring matter alone and require various after-treatments for its fixation; and others again are simply mordants thickened. A mordant is the metallic salt or other substance that combines with the colouring principle to form an insoluble colour-lake, either directly by steaming, or indirectly by dyeing.
All printing colours require thickening, for the twofold object of enabling them to be transferred from colour-box to cloth without loss and to prevent them from running or spreading beyond the limits of the pattern.
[edit]Selecting thickening agents
The printing thickeners used depend on the printing technique and fabric and dyestuff used. Typical thickening agents are starch derivatives, flour, gum arabic, guar gum derivatives, tamarind, sodium alginate, sodium polyacrylate, gum Senegal and gum tragacanth, British gum or dextrine and albumen.
Hot water soluble tickening agents as native starch are made into pastes by boiling in double or jacketed pans, between the inner and outer casings of which either steam or water may be made to circulate, for boiling and cooling purposes. Mechanical agitators are also fitted in these pans to mix the various ingredients together, and to destroy lumps and prevent the formation of lumps, keeping the contents thoroughly stirred up during the whole time they are being boiled and cooled to make a smooth paste. Most tickening agents used today are cold soluble and require only extensive stirring.
[edit]Starch paste
This is made from wheat starch, cold water, and olive oil, and boiled for thickening.
Non modified Starch was the most extensively used of all the thickenings. It is applicable to all but strongly alkaline or strongly acid colours. With the former it thickens up to a stiff unworkable jelly, while mineral acids or acid salts convert it into dextrine, thus diminishing its viscosity or thickening power. Acetic and formic acids have no action on it even at the boil. Today mostly modified carboxymethylated cold soluble starches are used which have a stable viscosity and are easier to rinse out of the fabric and give reproducible "short" pasty rheology.
Flour paste is made in a similar way to starch paste. At the present time it is rarely used for anything but the thickening of aluminum and iron mordants. In the impressive textile traditions of Japan, several techniques using starch paste resists of rice flour have been perfected over several centuries.
[edit]Gums
Gum arabic and gum Senegal are both very old thickenings, but their expense prevents them from being used for any but pale delicate tints. They are especially useful thickenings for the light ground colours of soft muslins and sateens on account of the property they possess of dissolving completely out of the fibers of the cloth in the washing process after printing and have a long flowing, viscous rheology, giving sharp print and good penetration in the cloth. Today guar gum and tamarind derivates offer a cheaper alternative.
British gum or dextrin is prepared by heating starch. It varies considerably in composition sometimes being only slightly roasted and consequently only partly converted into dextrine, and at other times being highly torrefied, and almost completely soluble in cold water and very dark in colour. Its thickening power decreases and its gummy nature increases as the temperature at which it is roasted is raised. The lighter coloured gums or dextrines will make a good thickening with from 2 to 3 lb of gum to one gallon of water, but the darkest and most highly calcined require from 6 to lb per gallon to give a substantial paste. Between these limits all qualities are obtainable. The darkest qualities are very useful for strongly acid colours, and with the exception of gum Senegal, are the best for strongly alkaline colours and discharges. Like the natural gums, neither light nor dark British gums penetrate as well into the fiber of the cloth so deeply as pure starch or flour, and are therefore unsuitable for very dark strong colours.
Gum tragacanth, or Dragon, is one of the most indispensable thickening agents possessed by the textile printer. It may be mixed in any proportion with starch or flour and is equally useful for pigment colours and mordant colours. When added to starch paste it increases its penetrative power, adds to its softness without diminishing its thickness, makes it easier to wash Out of the fabric and produces much more level colours than starch paste alone. Used by itself it is suitable for printing all kinds of dark grounds on goods that are required to retain their soft clothy feel. A tragacanth mucilage may be made either by allowing it to stand a day or two in contact with cold water or by soaking it for twenty-four hours in warm water and then boiling it up until it is perfectly smooth and homogeneous. If boiled under pressure it gives a very fine, smooth mucilage (not a solution proper), much thinner than if made in the cold.
Starch always leave on the printed cloth somewhat harsh in feel (unless modified carboxymethylated starches are used) but are well suited to obtain very dark colours. Gum Senegal, gum arabic or modified guar gum thickening are yielding beautifully clear and perfectly even tints comparing to starch, but give lighter colours and are washedaway too much during the rinsing or washing of the printed fabric and are thuss less suited for very dark colours. (The gums are apparently preventing the colours from combining fully with the fibers.) So a printing stock solution is mostly a combination of modified starch and gum stock solutions usually made by dissolving 6 or 8 lb of either in one gallon of water.
[edit]Albumen
Albumen is both a thickening and a fixing agent for insoluble pigments such as chrome yellow, the ochres, vermilion and ultramarine. Albumen is always dissolved in the cold, a process that takes several days when large quantities are required. The usual strength of the solution is 4 lb per gallon of water for blood albumen, and 6 lb per gallon for egg albumen. The latter is expensive and only used for the lightest shades. For most purposes one part of albumen solution is mixed with one part of tragacanth mucilage, this proportion of albumen being found amply sufficient for the fixation of all ordinary pigment colours. In special instances the blood albumen solution is made as strong as 50 per cent, but this is only in cases where very dark colours are required to be absolutely fast to washing. After printing, albumen thickened colours are exposed to hot steam, which coagulates the albumen and effectually fixes the colours.
[edit]Printing thickeners and the dye system
Combinations of cold water soluble carboxymethylated starch, guar gum and tamarind derivatives are most commonly used today in disperse screen printing on polyester, for cotton printing with reactive dyes alginates are used, sodium polyacrylates for pigment printing and with vat dyes on cotton only carboxymethylated starch is used.
[edit]Printing paste preparation
Formerly colours were always prepared for printing by boiling the thickening agent, the colouring matter and solvents, &c., together, then cooling and adding the various fixing agents. At the present time, however, concentrated solutions of the colouring matters and other adjuncts are often simply added to the cold thickenings, of which large quantities are kept in stock.
Colours are reduced in shade by simply adding more stock (printing) paste. For example, a dark blue containing 4 oz. of methylene blue per gallon may readily be made into a pale shade by adding to it thirty times its bulk of starch paste or gum, as the case may be. Similarly with other colours.
Before printing it is very essential to strain or sieve all colours in order to free them from lumps, fine sand, &c., which would inevitably damage the highly polished surface of the engraved rollers and result in bad printing. Every scratch on the surface of a roller prints a fine line in the cloth, and too much care, therefore, cannot be taken to remove, as far as possible, all grit and other hard particles from every colour.
The straining is usually done by squeezing the colour through filter cloths as artisanal fine cotton, silk or industrial woven nylon. Fine sieves can also be employed for colours that are used hot or are very strongly alkaline or acid.
[edit]Silk printing
Silk printing calls for no special mention. The colours and methods employed are the same as for wool, except that in the case of silk no preparation of the material is required before printing and the ordinary dry steaming is preferable to damp steaming.
Both acid and basic dyes play an important role in silk printing, which for the most part is confined to the production of articles for wearing apparel dress goods, handkerchiefs, scarves, articles for which bright colours are in demand. Alizarine and other mordant colours are mainly used, or ought to be, for any goods that have to resist repeated washings and prolonged exposure to light. In this case the silk frequently requires to be prepared in alizarine oil, after which it is treated in all respects like cotton steamed, washed and soaped the colours used being the same.
Silk is especially adapted to discharge and reserve effects. Most of the acid dyes can be discharged in the same way as when they are dyed on wool; and reserved effects are produced by printing mechanical resists, such as waxes and fats, on the cloth and then dyeing it up in cold dye-liquor. The great affinity of the silk fiber for basic and acid dyestuffs enables it to extract colouring matter from cold solutions, and permanently combine with it to form an insoluble lake. After dyeing, the reserve prints are washed, first in cold water to get rid of any colour not fixed on the fiber, and then in hot water or benzene, to dissolve out the resisting bodies.
As a rule, after steaming, silk goods are only washed in hot water, but, of course, those printed entirely in mordant dyes will stand soaping, and indeed require it to brighten the colours and soften the material. (E. K.)
[edit]Notes
^ Tozer and Levitt, Fabric of Society: A Century of People and Their Clothes 1770-1870
^ Ancient Coptic Christian Fabrics from Egypt
^ An Introduction to a History of Woodcut, Arthur M. Hind, p, Houghton Mifflin Co. 1935 (in USA), reprinted Dover Publications, 1963 ISBN 0-486-20952-0
[edit]References
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Kadolph, Sara J., ed.: Textiles, 10th edition, Pearson/Prentice-Hall, 2007, ISBN 0-13-118769-4
Tozer, Jane and Sarah Levitt, Fabric of Society: A Century of People and Their Clothes 1770-1870, Laura Ashley Press, ISBN 0950891304
[edit]External links
Screen printing industry resource
Tex Visions - Modern textile printing resource
2011年1月8日 星期六
Before You Run: The Dynamic Warm-Up
Skipping will help get your heart rate up before you start your run. A dynamic warm-up is one that challenges every part of your body that you use to run.
Your body is a machine—your machine—and there are lots of moving parts. Your cardio capacity is certainly a driving factor in your performance, but your ability to get the most from your cardio endurance is highly dependent on your body's ability to transfer your effort efficiently, from head to toe and on to the pavement, during each and every running stride.
A dynamic warm-up coordinates all of your moving parts—muscles, ligaments, and joints—by challenging your flexibility, mobility, strength and stability all at once; because that's what you ask of yourself when you run, right?! Doing so is pivotal in getting you to the finish line as fun, fast and pain-free as possible.
The Goals of a Dynamic Warm-Up
• Increase heart rate to get the blood pumping through the body and warm up the muscles.
• Open up your joints, especially those within the hips, spine, feet and ankles.
• Actively stretch your muscles to prepare them for what you'll be asking them for during the run.
• Reinforce great posture.
• Hit the ground running with all systems go when the gun goes off!
The Keys to a Dynamic Warm-Up
• Think of it as a part of the race. Do it!
• Set aside time dedicated to it. Whether it's 30 minutes or two minutes, you can do your body good.
• Clear your mind and focus on your body. Save chit-chatting with friends for before or after the race.
• Move through the movements purposefully but continuously so that your heart rate increases throughout.
The Key Elements of a Dynamic Warm-Up
[NOTE: Click on exercise names for a link to videos of the exercises.]
1. Great Posture
- Stand tall, like a string is attached to the top of your head gently pulling upward.
- Stand with feet shoulder width apart and pointing straight forward.
- Tighten key abdominals by pulling the bellybutton inward and rib cage downward.
- Pull the shoulders back and downward while keeping arms relaxed.
2. Fire Up Your Glutes, Then Use Them, Always
Two Options:
Glute Bridge: Lying on your back, bend your knees to 90 degrees, keep heels on floor while pulling toes to your shins. Use your glutes to raise your hips so they are in a straight line with your knees and shoulders. Keep hips parallel to the ground. Hold for two seconds. Release, then repeat 10 times.
Lateral Lunge: Start with great posture and your feet wider than your shoulders. From there, squat your hips down and over to the right while keeping your left leg straight. Keeping your feet flat on the ground, use your right glute to push you up to your starting position. Repeat on the left side. Do 10 total.
3. Open Up Your Joints and Stretch the Muscles Around Them
Spine: Flex, extend, rotate and laterally bend the spine. Do this by rounding the back while reaching for your toes and then extending your back in the opposite direction. Then do a few side bends while keeping your abdominals and hips locked in place.
You're committed. Your mind is strong and will only get stronger. Make sure you give your body the best chance you can give it so you can do all that you'd love to do with it. Because you can!
2010年12月24日 星期五
The Travel Habits of One of the World’s Top Ski Mountaineer’s
Kris Erickson has visited Nepal and Morocco among many other exciting places.
With the cold weather arriving and many people heading off to ski destinations and planning other exciting winter vacations, I thought it would be fun to do a Q&A with a renowned ski mountaineer who has climbed and photographed some of the world’s most breathtaking peaks!
For 10 years, Kris Erickson has brought his camera to the highest points, coldest reaches, and most untouched folds of the planet’s geography. What’s more, he is not merely a shutterbug who stands idle to the side of any expedition. Instead, he tackles the same challenging mountaineering projects as the world’s other top-flight climbers, often combining his abilities to ascend difficult mountains with a love and passion for true mountain-sliding descents.
1. How often do you travel?
I’m on the road 6 to 8 months per year, much of this time is for expeditions with The North Face that last between 4 and 8 weeks. Along with my family, I spend about 4 to 6 months per year in Morocco where we are in the midst of a multi-year historic preservation and education project.
2. Do you have any favorite destinations?
We (my family) spend most of our time in the remote mountain regions of Nepal and Morocco. Despite their religious differences and geographical separation, we have found that the same things draw us to these countries; the honest and hospitable people, breathtaking landscapes with exceptional recreational opportunities, and a way of life that prioritizes family. We also enjoy exploring our home state of Montana and an occasional trip to Mexico for some beach time in Sayulita or Xcalak.
3. Do you prefer to stay at a specific hotel?
In Kathmandu I always stay at Hotel Tibet and in Marrakesh I often stay at Hotel Assia. Both are affordable and clean hotels with great service.
4. When given the option, would you rather stay at a hotel, motel, or bed & breakfast?
Most often, I stay in family-run guest houses or gites when in rural villages and this is generally the only option. When en route to or returning from a destination, I prefer a hotel for the privacy and ability to have a hot shower and recharge after a long flight or a long time in the mountains.
5. What’s your most memorable trip?
In 2006, my wife and I received a grant from The North Face to take a group of athletes to the Central High Atlas Mountains of Morocco for a climbing expedition and philanthropic project. The North Face team completed a new 700 meter rock route, restored dangerous sections of local trails, and put a new roof on the elementary school – all in three weeks. It was an amazingly successful trip that laid the foundation and local relationships needed for our current work in the country.
6. Any advice for people on the best ways to plan an outdoor-focused trip?
Spend plenty of time preparing before you leave. Think about potential health risks and necessary vaccinations. If traveling to remote regions with small children, be prepared with oral rehydration solution in case of diarrhea. We always travel with acidopholous to replenish healthy intestinal bacteria. Also think about purchasing a rescue insurance such as Global Rescue, which is recommended by the American Alpine Club and used by The North Face for their athletes.
2010年12月22日 星期三
How to Hike the Grand Canyon in Winter
How to Hike the Grand Canyon in Winter
Most vacationers visit the Grand Canyon in warm weather months, but here's a chance to see one of the most spectacular sites on Earth-and not be bothered by big crowds. Bear in mind the north rim is closed in the winter due to snow. If you'd like to hike it in the winter from the South Rim, read on!
Instructions
Difficulty: Easy
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Step 1
Get a reservation at Phantom Ranch, which is located all the way at the bottom of the canyon. The phone number of Xanterra Parks and Resorts, which handles these things, is 1-888-297-2757. Without a reservation at the bottom, you'd have to hike the entire canyon in one day-but why hike for 16 hours straight when you can have a bunk bed to stay in, a warm shower, a huge hot dinner, a hearty warm breakfast and a sack lunch to do this monumental goal?
Step 2
Reserve your meals at Phantom Ranch. One of the joys in staying there is you don't have to carry down all of your food-take advantage of this service (even if it is pricey).
Step 3
Once you're set at Phantom Ranch, get a reservation or two at the South Rim. The phone number is also 1-888-297-2757. The leisurely way to do this hike is get a room at the rim the night before you hike and the night after you come up. That way you're not tired from driving in or too tired to drive out when you're done hiking. There are a variety of places to stay at the South Rim, varying in price, from the economical Bright Angel Lodge to the upscale El Tovar.
Step 4
Spend the next several months training for the hike. You'll be at 7,000 feet when you hike out of the canyon-it's a lung-buster altitude. See my article on training for hiking Mt. Whitney.
Step 5
Confirm your reservations four to seven days before your trip. They will have mailed you the phone number for this.
Step 6
Once you're at the Grand Canyon, buy crampons at the gift store if it's snowing or there is snow in the forecast. They're cheap and will help your footing until you hike below the snow level.
Step 7
On the morning of your big hike down in, eat a good breakfast and set out by 7 a.m. on the Bright Angel Trail. This route is 13 miles to the bottom and yes, longer than the return trip, BUT the Bright Angel provides a wonderful place to take a brief side trip and lunch stop at Plateau Point.
Step 8
Keep your eye on the clock-you want to be to Phantom Ranch by 4 p.m. for two reasons: the first seating of dinner is at 5 p.m. (and they're not going to hold dinner for you) and by 4 p.m. the sun will be going down and the canyon will be very cold.
Step 9
Consider staying two nights at Phantom Ranch-otherwise, you'll be up before sunrise to head out the next morning. If you stay an extra night, the layover day can give you the opportunity to explore the canyon-Ribbon Falls is a 12-mile roundtrip hike, or you could make a short loop hike going across the two bridges over the Colorado River instead.
Step 10
Return by way of the Kaibab Trail, which will be 8 miles back up to the top. Start by 8 a.m. to be out of the canyon by 4 p.m. The trail is steeper than the Bright Angel but affords a tremendous view of the whole canyon because unlike the Bright Angel Trail, it's on a ridge. Walk very slowly, slow enough to carry on a conversation.
Step 11
At the top, take the shuttle bus back to your car. Better yet, park your car at the Kaibab trailhead BEFORE the hike and take the shuttle to your lodging for your first night in the park. If snow and ice have halted the shuttle by the time you've returned, at least your car will be where you're exiting the canyon.
Step 12
Treat yourself to dinner at the El Tovar-you deserve it! They take reservations, so make 'em ahead of time.
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Tips & Warnings
Reservations at Phantom Ranch can be had 13 months in advance. Make yours as soon as you can commit to your hiking date.
Occasionally cancellations pop up. People have walked up to the Phantom Ranch reservation Desk inside the Bright Angel Lodge and gotten lodging down below for the next night. Don't count on it, though.
Dress in layers. It could be cold and snowy at the top and shirt- sleeve weather half way down.
Use hiking poles, 13 miles is tough on anybody's knees and poles will save wear and tear for you. Plus they will help you balance if the trail is icy.
The Phantom Ranch dinner seatings offer different menus, and if you and your companions ordered different dinners, you may not be eating together. The offerings are lentil loaf, a steak dinner and beef stew.
At the Ranch, there are little rustic cabins for couples and larger dorms that accommodate 10 in bunk beds. Bring ear plugs if you're a light sleeper.
Phantom Ranch supplies towels and soap. The canteen down there has snacks, too.
Yes, you can camp in the winter at the bottom if you're up for it. In which case, you'll be bringing everything: sleeping bag, tent, food-and a backpacking permit that you can apply for four months in advance.
BRING CHAINS for your car. It frequently snows up at the rim, and you could easily be caught in two feet of snow during your visit.
Be aware of hypothermia, which is what happens if you get chilled to the bone and can't get warm. That's why a warm hat, waterproof clothing, and layers are so important.
There's no place to cook in your cabin or dorm at the Ranch.
Read more at Trails.com: How to Hike the Grand Canyon in Winter | Trails.com http://www.trails.com/how_1661_hike-grand-canyon-winter.html#ixzz18qN02TBT
2010年12月21日 星期二
9 Ways to Run Smarter
Try these other tips for the beginning runner.
Face the Traffic
When you're running on the road, run on the left side.Hit the Sidewalk
Unless laws prohibit it, runners are considered pedestrians and may run on sidewalks as protection from traffic.Use the Crosswalk
I've heard of several accidents in which runners were struck by vehicles—the majority of which occurred when the runner was not using the crosswalk.Make a Pass
On running paths, stay to the right and pass on the left . If you're on a trail with no room to overtake another runner, wait 30 seconds then ask to slip by. If you're on a track, pass on the right. In a race, pass on either side of a runner ahead of you.Go With the Flow
On a trail, follow the travel pattern, typically posted near the trailhead or parking area. If none exists and the trail is shared with cyclists, go with the traffic flow.Even if you're too busy, help decrease your stress and tension by running.
Keep Your Dog Close
If you run with Rex, keep him close by, on a tight leash, and move to the side so runners can pass without interruption.Circle the Track
The normal rotation on a track is counterclockwise, but look for regulations; some reverse directions every other day.In order to prepare for a longer or more challenging race, try running a 5K with training advice from Runner's World.
Defer to Fast Folks
On a recreational path or trail, simply move to the side to let them through. If you're on a track, stick to the outside lanes.Wave if You Want
Some runners prefer to zone out during a run and not focus on anyone, but others tell me they feel energized when they wave and like the sense of camaraderie a greeting provides.
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